FPJ 98th Anniversary: Gondhal To Hip-Hop — How Maharashtra’s Protest Music Became A Language Of Social Change

Maharashtra’s protest music has never belonged to a single era, nor has it ever settled into a solitary sound. From medieval saint-poets who sang in the vernacular to challenge elite hegemony, to revolutionary Shahirs whose ballads mobilised working-class uprisings, the state has continuously birthed music that arms the marginalised. Today, that same pulse reverberates through the narrow alleys of Dharavi and the chawls of Pune. What has shifted across centuries is not the impulse to dissent, but the instrument of its delivery: the traditional dafli has seamlessly met the digital beat machine, transforming folk rituals into multilingual rap.

To understand modern street music, one must trace the socio-cultural DNA of Maharashtra’s earliest oral arts. Gondhal, historically a sacred ritual dedicated to goddesses like Renuka and Bhavani, evolved beyond pure devotion to blend community gathering, patriotic fervour, and acute social commentary. Similarly, Bharud relied on narrative, humour, and theatrical address to expose societal hypocrisies. These were not static museum pieces; they were dynamic social tools. During the COVID-19 pandemic, artists fine-tuned Powada, Gondhal, Bharud, and even Lavani to communicate public health directives, proving that folk media possess an uncanny ability to adapt to modern crises.

The most direct political ancestor of modern street music is the Shahiri tradition. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Satyashodhaki Jalsas transformed music into an ideological weapon to convey Mahatma Jyotirao Phule’s anti-caste philosophy. Later, Shahirs disseminated Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s vision of emancipation through song. Shahiri established a crucial precedent: music was not entertainment; it was a technology of public speech.

When veteran balladeer, cultural activist and music composer Sambhaji Bhagat—whose music inspired the acclaimed film Court—approaches a protest song, he treats it with the analytical rigour of a novelist.

"My music stems directly from the masses and the centuries-old oral traditions I was born into," Bhagat explains. "However, I don't use folk forms verbatim... I examine the reality of an issue—for example, Gen Z movements. If I need a theoretical understanding, I consult sociologists to study their mental makeup, language, and relationship with modern media. Once researched, I identify which forms resonate—whether hip-hop, rap, or film music—and develop both content and form together."

For Bhagat, the underlying mechanics of art in social movements remain grounded in power dynamics. In any struggle, oppressors yield the physical force of the state and police. The oppressed, lacking physical weaponry, rely on counter-culture.

"Art, music, and voice become tools against cultural hegemony because a voice cannot be shot—only a body can," says Bhagat. Observing modern youth protests, such as the widespread NEET demonstrations, he sees a vital evolutionary leap: "Seeing young artists fuse folk traditions with modern genres like hip-hop, rap, and grunge for social causes is a remarkable step... sensitivity now transcends class lines."

This philosophy finds its literal manifestation in the streets. Abhirup Kadam, an educator, conservationist, and performer, argues that modern rap is conceptually identical to historical Maharashtrian folk forms.

"Rap is fundamentally non-different from traditional folk forms like Lokgeet or Powadas," Abhirup observes. "The literal meaning of 'RAP' is 'Rhythm And Poetry'. Long before modern hip-hop, Lokshahirs like Annabhau Sathe and Vilas Ghogre created rhythmic, socially charged music that served the exact same purpose—to stir social consciousness and speak directly to street reality. Modern rap is simply a newer medium expressing those same timeless ideologies."

Four decades on pavement

While younger artists leverage algorithm-driven platforms, veteran cultural activist Sunil Kadam provides crucial historical context, drawing from four decades of street performance.

"When the Industrial Revolution and capitalism took hold, worker movements across the world—from Russia and China to Cuba—proved that no political revolution happens without an underlying cultural revolution," Sunil Kadam reflects. "In India, protest music moved through distinct streams: Gandhian non-violence, Marxist labour movements, and Ambedkarite anti-caste struggles."

Reflecting on the 1980s textile mill strikes in Mumbai and his performances during the post-1992 communal riots, Kadam highlights both continuity and change. In the past, activists travelled neighbourhood to neighbourhood, singing songs like "Mandir masjid gurudware mein baant liya bhagwan ko... mat baanto insaan ko" to promote peace. Today, smartphone media allows a single reel or rap track to mobilise thousands of youth instantly.

Trajectory of cultural resistance

The evolution of Maharashtra’s street and protest music follows a distinct historical continuum, adapting its form to meet the societal crises of each era:

Industrial & Capitalist Transitions: The rise of industrialisation and global labour movements established that political shift requires an underlying social and cultural revolution. In India, this manifested through ideological streams like Marxist worker movements, Gandhian non-violence, and Ambedkarite anti-caste struggles.

Regional Folk Foundations: Activists drew directly from traditional Maharashtrian performance arts—such as Powada (Shahiri poetry), Bharud, and Tamasha—using these accessible, vernacular forms to build public awareness and communicate resistance.

Urban Crises of the 1980s & 1990s: During key urban flashpoints, such as the historic Bombay textile mill strikes and the post-1992 communal riots, cultural groups adapted street theatre and folk songs to organise workers, promote peace, and counter communal division.

Digital & Modern Era: Today, street activism has embraced modern technology. Smartphone media, short-form video platforms, and regional rap allow contemporary youth to organise instantaneously, turning modern hip-hop into the newest iteration of Maharashtra's long-standing protest tradition.

Yet, Kadam remains clear-eyed about the pace of structural transformation. "Having engaged in street theatre since 1986, progress often feels slow... Core struggles such as unemployment, inflation, casteism, and communal tensions persist. Horizontal slums have simply turned vertical. But activism does not yield instant results. Real social change is an incremental process. As the saying goes: 'Revolution does not happen in a single day.' The groundwork laid by past cultural movements continues to inform and inspire new generations."

From the ritual beats of Gondhal and the incisive humour of Bharud, through the militant defiance of Shahiri, to the bass-heavy bars of Dharavi and Pune, Maharashtra’s protest music reveals an undeniable truth: the medium re-invents itself, but the core objective remains unchanged. Whether performed under a village banyan tree or recorded on a smartphone in a narrow chawl alley, street music remains the ultimate equaliser—a public language that converts marginality into undeniable artistic and moral authority.

Different eras street & protest music

19th to Mid-20th Century

Dominant Mediums: Satyashodhaki Jalsas, Powada

Ideological Drive: Anti-caste reform, anti-colonialism, and worker dignity.

Key Figures & Movements: Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, Bhimrao Kardak, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s anti-caste movement.

Late 20th Century

Dominant Mediums: Shahiri, Street Theatre, Bharud

Ideological Drive: Textile mill workers' rights, anti-caste resistance, and anti-communal harmony.

Key Figures & Movements: Annabhau Sathe, Vilas Ghogre, Sunil Kadam, and Sambhaji Bhagat.

Early 2000s

Dominant Mediums: Underground Cyphers, B-Boying, Orkut Communities

Ideological Drive: Adapting global hip-hop culture and its street-level ethos to the local context.

Key Figures & Movements: B3 Rap Crew and early Mumbai MCs.

2010s to Present

Dominant Mediums: Multilingual Conscious Rap and Folk-Hip-Hop Fusion

Ideological Drive: Environmental justice, anti-caste movements, youth dissent, and civic rights.

Key Figures & Movements: Swadesi ("The Warli Revolt"), 100 RBH, and MC Dodo.

Evolution of Mumbai’s hip-hop scene

Early 2000s: Hip-hop took root around DJing, B-boying, and cyphers hosted by underground crews.

2006–2012: Conscious rap collectives like Swadesi and The Dharavi Dream Project began utilizing hip-hop explicitly for social advocacy.

2018–2019 (Gully Boy Era): Mainstream exposure validated local crews (such as 7Bantaiz, Dogz Music, and Swadesi), propelling regional-language street poetry into national prominence.

Post-2019 & Digital Era: Rap expanded across regional languages. A landmark moment occurred during the Aarey Forest conservation movement, where the crew Swadesi collaborated with Warli tribal activist Prakash Bhoir to create "The Warli Revolt"—a fiery fusion of Indian classical music, regional hip-hop, and traditional Warli folk instruments.